Where Whaling Is Banned

The International Whaling Commission (IWC) is the big player in this. Established in 1946, through the creation of the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, it is the global body responsible for the management of whaling and conservation of whales. Created in response to the massive fall in whale numbers in they heyday of whaling, it consists of members from 89 countries worldwide, all of which are signed up to the Convention. The IWC has widened its remit to also address other issues threatening whales, such as ship strike, pollution and climate change.

Currently, there exist two sanctuaries established under the IWC. The first is the Indian Ocean sanctuary, established in 1979. It was proposed by the Seychelles, in order to protect whales when in their breeding grounds. The second, created in 1994, covers 50 million square kilometres of the southern waters around Antarctica. The establishment of any new sanctuary has to be voted on by the 89

member-countries, and every tenth year a new vote is made to review the status of the sanctuaries. A third sanctuary area has several times been proposed for the South Atlantic Ocean, but this has not yet gained the 75% majority vote required for approval.

The IWC’s work it not without controversy. Some countries, notably Japan, frequently vote against the ban on whaling, arguing for the right to hunt whale as a traditional food product. There is an ongoing bid by Japan to challenge the IWC, citing an increase to sustainable levels of some whales. This reflects the tensions between those who wish to protect as unique mammals of the sea, and those who view them as potential food supplies.

Sanctuaries for Captive Whales

Increasingly, opinion has mounted against the captivity of whales and other cetaceans for entertainment purposes. The detriment to the physical and mental health and wellbeing of these wonderful mammals has been well documented. Over recent years, different organisations have begun to work with owners of sea life attractions to return these captive mammals to the wild, in sanctuaries.

One such project, by the Sea Life Trust, is to create the world’s first open-sea whale sanctuary in the waters of Iceland. Comprising a sea pen of 32,000 square metres, it is being created for two currently captive beluga whales. Little White and Little Grey, as they are nicknamed, perform for visitors to the Changfeng Ocean World in Shanghai. As the whales are only 12 years old, and belugas can live for over 40 years, it is hoped that they will be able live a good quality of life, provided the difficult task of transporting them on a 35-hour journey is successful. As Cathy Williamson, leader of the WDC End Captivity Programme says, to keep them in captivity would give them no quality of life whatsoever, so the risk is worth taking.

The Dangers to Whales from Shipping

Strikes by ships are a major factor in whale deaths globally. Any ship can potentially be a danger, but the severity of injury broadly increases with ship size and speed of travel.

The North Atlantic right whale is particularly at risk from ship strikes. This whale seems to be even less able than other cetaceans to relate the approach of large ships to the danger they pose. A report by Knowlton and Kraus (1992) states that between 1970 and 1989, twenty percent of the northern right whales found dead had evidence of ship strike injuries. Humpback whales, fin whales, sperm whales and grey whales are also very susceptible to ship strikes. Injuries from ships include impact fractures, skull damage, and deep gashes from propellers.

Marine creatures, including whales, are extremely sensitive to noise pollution from the sonar and engines of ships. Sound travels further and more easily in water than in air. Noise from shipping can interfere with the ability of whales to echolocate, that is, to use sonar in order to locate prey for feeding. They also rely to an extent on echolocation to search for a mate. Disruption of either of these behaviours is clearly a threat to the survival of affected species of whale.

Attempts to Avoid Damage

There is something horrifying and saddening when these wild, wonderful creatures are maimed or killed by human activity. Researchers and conservationists are busy trying to find ways to minimise the danger. The WDC (Whale and Dolphin Conservation) group report that propeller guards and acoustic detection systems have had some limited success. So far however, the most effective way of protecting whales is to limit shipping to 10 knots or less in areas where whales are known to be at the time.

Still, the problem remains that identifying with any accuracy where whales will be is not an easy task. This is why there is great interest in the recent innovative work by the British Antarctic Survey team.

Tracking Whales from Space

This potentially game-changing development was widely reported at the beginning of November 2018. Peter Fretwell, of the British Antarctic Survey (BAS) team, told CNN News,

“Most whale populations have been increasing after they were hunted almost to extinction in the 20th century, but some whale populations are struggling and that’s because of things like ship strikes and net entanglements,”

The team have taken images from the WorldView-3 spacecraft which, even from 620km up, give very high-resolution pictures. The images are so detailed that the species of whale pictured can be identified, and accurate counts made of whales in the surveyed location.

Initially, this technology will be used to conduct an audit of fin whales in the Mediterranean. However, the potential is there to develop a system which can alert ships, in real time, to the exact location of any groups of whales near the ships’ paths. This would be a welcome development in the effort to protect whales.

Cape Breton Highlands National Park

It was established in 1936 on Cape Breton Island. Bordering the Gulf of St Lawrence and the Atlantic Ocean, and covering nearly 1,000 square kilometres, it is renowned for its varied landscapes. Visitors will see mountains and steep cliffs, forests with waterfalls and deep canyons etched by rivers. There are two fresh water beaches and several salt water beaches. Wildlife abounds here, with black bears, lynx, red foxes, moose and many other animals. Visitors may spot a bald eagle in the sky, and in the sea whales, dolphins and seals can be seen. Staff at the two visitor centres can advise on planning a route. There are over 20 walking and hiking trails to choose from. For campers, there are 8 camping areas. Keen golfers might want to use the 18-hole golf course.

Kejimkujik National Park

Founded in 1969 and additionally designated a national historic site in 1995, it is a park of two parts, with a total area of over 400 square kilometres.  The largest part is on the Nova Scotia peninsula and comprises forest areas in an upland plain. The Kejimkujik Seaside area is south east of the main park, on the Atlantic coast, with beaches and wetland habitats. Both areas are outstanding in their beauty, and are home to a variety of wildlife, including woodpeckers, white-tailed deer and porcupines. The area can be explored by foot, as well as by kayak or canoe on the rivers and lakes.

In addition to its wonderful scenery, the park is rich in history of the indigenous Mi’kmaq people. Petroglyphs carved from stone still exist thousands of years after they were created, but in order to protect them, just one part is accessible to the public for guided viewing. Because of lack of city light pollution, the park is a Dark Sky preserve. Visitors may book a star tour, with guides who are knowledgeable in stories about the stars as seen from the Mi’kmaq perspective.

Sable Island National Park Reserve

This locale got its official opening in 2013. It is made up entirely of sand and is situated several hundred kilometres off the Atlantic coast. Access is by sea, or by a small plane, which lands on the beach. The island is long and narrow (40 kilometres long and 1.5 kilometres wide). Apart from park staff and the people who run the island’s weather station, it is not populated, and overnight visiting is not allowed. Those wanting to visit need to contact Parks Canada and then arrange a charter flight or boat.

This might not market Sable as an easy place to visit, and indeed just 200 or so visitors make the journey each year. They are rewarded with bleakly beautiful sand slopes and marram grass, bird colonies and seals. Especially wonderful are the wild Sable island ponies, described as ‘magical’ by some. These were introduced to the island in the late 18^th century and are now protected by law. Of all the world’s wild horse populations, these are truly wild, being allowed to roam, reproduce and feed without human intervention.

Walking Whales

Some characteristics of whales are consistent with them having evolved from a land-living creature. Their bone structure is suited to land-based movement. Occasionally, more contemporary whale skeleton finds have been reported to show evidence of vestigial limbs – small stumps which could be the evolutionary left-over of legs in the species millions of years ago.

The remains of an ancient baleen whale, from 27 million years ago, were discovered in Washington State, USA, by Lawrence Barnes and colleagues. The pelvis was found to have a deep socket of the type to hold a thigh bone. Barnes, of the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles, estimates that the mammal could have had small legs of about one and a half feet long.

There has been much speculation as to what kind of land creatures could be a precursor to whales. One idea was that whales are related to an extinct hoofed mammal, the teeth of which were similar to whale teeth. However, more recent theories about the land-based ancestors of whales would put the whale closer to hippopotami.

Pakicetus

The discovery of complete fossilised remains of a creature named Pakicetus has changed the course of whale evolution theories somewhat. First discovered by palaeontologists in 1983, this creature lived about 56 million years ago, around the area now known as Pakistan. At that time, the region was on the shores of the ancient Tethys Sea which separated Africa from Asia. The Pakicetus, about the size of a wolf, was an aquatic land mammal. While it had a land animal’s body in many ways, there are some important distinctions. The Pakicetus skull shape is more like that of a whale, and the teeth of Pakicetus and of whales are very similar. Fossils show its ear shape and position to be of a type unique to whales. This puts the Pakicetus in the Cetacean class, the same class as whales, dolphins and porpoises, even though it lived on land.

It is suggested that the carnivorous Pakicetus found it easier to hunt for food in water, where there was less competition from other mammals. It eventually evolved to stay in water completely, and to no longer have legs, because it had no more need, in survival terms, to venture on to land. The Pakicetus ankle bone links it to artiodactyls, even-toed hoofed animals such as pigs, cows, giraffes – and hippopotami. That is how it is thought that the hippopotamus is in fact the closest living relative to the whale. This is not to say that whales directly evolved from hippos, just that they share some evolutionary links.

Whale Watching by Private Boat

There are laws covering how close a boat can legally get to certain whales, so it is important to be aware of these before embarking. Rules differ for different species of whale, and for specific locations. For example, in Hawaii 100 yards is the legal minimum distance to keep between a boat and a humpback whale. In any case, a responsible whale watcher would not want to approach a whale or a pod too closely. The Hawaiian limit of 100 yards is a good general guide, with minimal risk of distressing the whales.

It is recommended that boats should approach in parallel with the whales’ path, and not cut across them. Care should be taken to not block them from moving to deeper waters; if they are sent off course to shallow waters, they may become disorientated and be at risk of stranding. The NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) recommends that boats should keep to a speed of less than 10 knots when entering an area where whales may be found. A knock from even a small power boat could cause injury to a whale, which in itself could be life threatening, as well as increasing the danger of stranding. Of course, a collision is a potentially dangerous situation for people in a boat, too.

The longer boats stay near whales, the more risk there is from the boats’ presence. The proximity and the engine sounds can distract the whales from hunting for food, and it is well documented that noise pollution can affect their ability to keep to their migration routes. With this in mind, 30 minutes is the recommended maximum viewing time in any one area. It is important to be aware of the behaviour of any whales in the area. Changes in behaviour may indicate distress being caused. For example, a sudden change in swimming pattern, repeated tail slapping on the surface or female whales shielding their calves should be taken seriously. Boats in this instance should slowly and carefully leave the area directly.

Commercial Tours

Once on a commercial tour, whale watchers have little say in how it is run. Therefore, it is important to research the various companies offering tours, before making a decision. Look at:

• What the company offers online – any offering to get ‘up close’ with whales, for example, clearly won’t adhere to good practice.
• Reviews of the company and previous tours.
• Their information leaflets and display boards.
• Size of boat and how many passengers they allow as a maximum on each tour.
• Also, ask questions directly of the people who will take the boats out. What makes good practice for whale watching in private boats should also be part of the company’s practice on their tours.

The World Cetacean Alliance (WCA) has produced a Global Best Practice Guidance for Responsible Whale and Dolphin Watching.  This is an excellent additional reference.

Part of Nova Scotia is physically connected to the mainland by the Isthmus of Chignecto. The rest of the province consists mainly of offshore islands, of which Cape Breton is the largest. In all, there are another 3,800 coastal islands over its total area of more than 55,000 square kilometres. Some of the smaller islands are privately owned, for example Kaulbach Island. Nova Scotia is bordered on the east, west and south by the Atlantic Ocean and to the north by the Bay of Fundy.

Landscapes of Nova Scotia

There are four major geographical regions to Nova Scotia: the Nova Scotia Highlands, the Atlantic Uplands, the Annapolis Lowland and the Maritime Plain. Between them, these regions span ocean, fertile farmland, marsh, wetlands and rugged highlands. In this small province, that is quite a range of landscape.

The Atlantic Uplands reach across most of southern Nova Scotia, in places interspersed by lowlands. These uplands were formed from ancient rocks with glacial deposits overlaying them. On the Atlantic shore, the Uplands rise from sea level, to reach over 600 feet on the southern side. It is from these uplands that many of Nova Scotia’s rivers originate, including the LaHave and the Shubencadie rivers. In Cape Breton can be found the mountainous Nova Scotia Highlands. These are in fact three separate upland areas. They contain North Mountain, the Cobequid Mountains and, in the east, the Cape Breton Highlands, the highest point in Nova Scotia. A visit to the Cape Breton Highlands National Park is seen as one of the highlights of a trip to Nova Scotia.

To the west of Nova Scotia is the Annapolis Lowland, a relatively smaller area also known as the Annapolis Valley. As the name suggests, the landscape here contrasts greatly with the highland regions. Geologically, it was founded on weak, sedimentary rock. At the western and eastern sides, it is at sea level, rising in the centre to around 120 feet and, at its north and south limits it reaches nearer 200 feet. Overlooking the Annapolis Lowland to the north stands the basalt-capped volcanic ridge of North Mountain (590 – 790 feet). The granite upland of South Mountain reaches to 690 feet at the southern perimeter.

The fourth region, the Maritime Plain, lies adjacent to the Northumberland Strait. The landscape here is lower, and its undulating areas contain rich, fertile soil. The deeper soil found in this region was formed from marine deposits and the erosion by glacial action of the sandstone, shale and limestone lying under these.

Road trips

It is said that, on a drive through Nova Scotia, the landscape will be seen to change dramatically, within the space of even half an hour. For those considering a road trip, there are many recommended routes which will take in the varied landscape and stunning scenery.

What are PCBs?

PCBs are an oily liquid or solid, with the property of being very stable, even when exposed to extreme temperature or pressure. As such, PCBs were used in a wide range of electrical components and equipment. In fact, their use was widespread across industry, from building sites to paint production to cutting machine fluid.

Manufacture of the chemical began in the 1920s and by the time their use was banned, it is estimated that 1.5 billion pounds of the product had been made. By the late 1970s it was realised that PCBs are highly toxic. The USA banned their use in 1979, and in 2001 at the Stockholm Convention, they were banned worldwide. North Korea is the only country still to manufacture PCBs.

Banned – but not Eradicated

The problem is in the disposal of PCBs that still exist. To date, only about 4% of the PCBs that were in existence have been safely destroyed. The rest, unable to be used, have remained in storage facilities while decisions are made as to how to get rid of them, or have simply lain in landfill sites. From there, the toxins leach into the water system, into rivers, and eventually oceans. Here, they are contaminating oceans, particularly in industrialised areas of the world, where marine creatures, including killer whales, are exposed to them.

Why are Orcas Especially at Risk?

Orcas are the top of the food chain, eating sea creatures which have in turn eaten others. In sea waters contaminated with PCBs this means they can consume a damaging amount of the toxin. Over time, the levels of PCB build up in an orca’s body, where it dissolves in the fat (blubber). From there it can enter the orca’s bloodstream and even be fed to their young in milk. It has been found that PCBs have a detrimental effect on the immune system of orcas, rendering them more prone to illness. Moreover, it affects their reproductive system, and cause infertility. An example of this is the endangered orca population off the West Coast of Scotland. Here, just eight orcas are remaining – and no calves have been born in more than 20 years.

What Next?

The study cited in Science magazine found that, of the 19 pods surveyed, 10 are thought likely to decline in numbers. As well as the UK’s orcas, those in the straits of Gibraltar, Japan and Brazil are unlikely to survive. Although all manufacture and use of PCBs has been halted, the task of safe disposal is not being consistently addressed. The USA has put much funding into cleaning the most contaminated sites, and here the seas are showing reduced levels of PCBs.

The outlook for orca populations in areas where PCBs are low, or reducing, is better. In the Arctic and Antarctic, the decline in numbers should reverse. But PCBs, once in the ocean, cannot be removed, and the next 30 to 50 years will be critical for the orcas.

Whales in UK waters

Especially around the western coasts, and around Scottish coasts, whales are not uncommon visitors. For example, the fin whale migrates to more temperate waters in summer, and has been spotted off the coast Cornwall. Humpback whales, renowned for their acrobatic displays, are more common in Scottish waters, but can sometimes be seen off Cornwall and the Scilly Isles as they travel northwards.

Beluga Whale in the River Thames

Beluga whales are around 20 feet in length and have a distinctive pale colouring with a bulbous forehead. Their habitat is the icy Arctic waters around Greenland and Svalbard, but they migrate south as ice begins to form in these regions. Their migratory path does not come close to the UK coastline, and if one is seen it means it has become separated from its pod and is lost. This could be a result of it becoming disorientated, perhaps by sonar from ships. It may be that it was taken off course by its usual food supply (plankton, crustaceans and molluscs) venturing into unusually warmer waters nearer the UK, a result of the exceptionally hot summer. Illness can cause whales to seek shallower waters, but this does not seem to be an issue for this beluga, as it has been seen to be swimming and feeding normally.

The beluga whale was spotted on Tuesday, swimming and feeding around barges near Gravesend in Kent. This sighting, first reported by ecologist Dave Andrews on Twitter, resulted in a flurry of interest from members of the public, media groups and whale conservation organisations. One observer said that it was ‘a privilege’ to see this wonderful creature.

Dangers to the Beluga

Being in river water is not in itself a problem, as belugas are able to move between salt water and fresh water, sometimes living in large northern rivers of the Arctic. However, the whale might be more at risk of eating plastics that pollute the river, in a more concentrated area than when in the ocean. Observers are hopeful that the beluga may swim back towards the sea, from where it should be able to find its way. If it started to swim upstream, following the river inland towards London, it could become stranded and in danger from shipping in a more confined urban space.

Expert rescue teams have been on call in case the beluga gets into difficulties and needs rescuing. Shipping in the area has been requested to stay clear of the beluga. Meanwhile, whale conservation organisations have asked the public and media to give the lost whale its space, and not to risk traumatising it by approaching it in boats. The hope is that this whale will, given time and space, return to the sea safely.

Origins

Evidence shows whaling was happening as far back as 4,000 years ago. Whaling took place in the Arctic, Pacific and Atlantic oceans. Hunting was on a small scale, often by using small boats to drive a single whale towards the beach where it would become stranded. Ancient tools have been found, in the form of harpoons with ropes or lines.

For communities living in inhospitable climates or regions, whales were an important source of food and raw materials. Hunting was driven by need. Almost the entire whale was utilised, and no more whales were killed than were needed. The blubber, meat, skin and organs provided nutrient-rich food. Some was preserved to be stored for later use. The baleen (by which baleen whales filter feed) was flexible and used for weaving baskets and for fishing line. Even the bones were utilised for making tools.

Development

In the Middle Ages, whaling became more prevalent in Northern Europe as whale blubber and the baleen became more sought-after raw materials. By this time, however, this was for convenience and vanity rather than for survival. Oil for use in lamps was produced from whale blubber, notably from right whales, bowhead whales, and sperm whales. The baleen was used extensively to stiffen women’s’ corsets, creating the fashionable shape of the time.

In the pre-gas or electrical lighting era of the 17^th century, the demand for whale oil led to whaling on an increasingly industrial scale. By the 1800s, gun-loaded harpoons and large steam-driven ships added to the intensity of whale hunting. It became a lucrative multi-million-dollar business in the United States, with hundreds of whaling ships scouring the oceans. It is estimated that more whales were hunted in the early 1900s than in all of the preceding four centuries. Many species, such as the blue whale and the sperm whale, became threatened with extinction. Although the demand for whale products as fuel decreased with the advent of fossil fuels on a large scale, the demand for other purposes remained high – for example for use in perfumes and soap and for whale meat.

Action

The International Whaling Commission (IWC) was formed in 1946, by several countries concerned about the over-hunting of whales. Its effectiveness was limited, however, and whale numbers continued to decline. Then, in 1982 the IWC called for a moratorium on all commercial whaling. Only two countries did not sign up to this, Japan and Norway.

After negotiations, two categories were agreed on for exemption from the moratorium: the first is to allow groups with a history of whale hunting for sustenance to continue on this basis (such as some Inuit in Canada) and the second is to allow hunting of a small number of whales for scientific purposes, as does Japan. This is controversial, as it has been suggested that this ‘scientific’ purpose is taken advantage of. Negotiations continue to take place on a case for case basis, between the IWC and those who wish to hunt whales and cite an exceptional reason. Unfortunately, maverick individuals and companies still flout national agreements, and this illicit hunting is one of the factors that continue to negatively affect whale numbers.

Blue Whales

Believed to be the largest mammals on Earth, past or present, the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) weighs in at around 150 tons and is roughly 100 feet long. It cannot compete with the smaller sperm whale for brain size, however, as this species reportedly has the largest brain of all mammals. The blue whale is also huge on sound. Having one of the loudest calls in nature, a blue whale’s song can travel several miles. It has been measured at between 155 and 188 decibels at source. Researchers have observed each note of the song to last between 10 -30 seconds, and songs to comprise 4 notes, lasting 2 minutes.

Sadly, the number of blue whales in existence is not on a scale with their size. Estimates put the blue whale population at between 200,000 and 300,000 before whaling increased to an industrial scale. Even though this level of whaling has ceased, the number of blue whales is now at around 5,000 – 12,000. Although it is the largest mammal, the blue whale feeds on some of the smallest creatures, such as the shrimp-like krill. As a baleen whale, and therefore not toothed, it filter-feeds using its baleen plates. It has a small oesophagus relative to its size, so food has to be small enough to be swallowed without being broken down by chewing.

Blue whales have regular migratory patterns, travelling thousands of miles between cold polar waters where they feed intensively, and warmer tropical waters for mating and birthing.

Pygmy sperm whale

In general, toothed whales are much smaller than any baleen whales. The exception is the sperm whale, which can grow up to about 70 feet long. At around 10 feet in length, the (toothed) adult pygmy sperm whale (Kogia breviceps) is significantly smaller.

The pygmy sperm whale uses echolocation (a sound emitted to locate prey, similar to radar) to help in locating prey. It has between 20 and 32 teeth, most usually set in the lower jaw, although some have been found to have up to 3 pairs of teeth in the upper jaw as well.

Its diet consists of squid, octopus and shrimp; being toothed, it can eat far larger prey than the filter-feeding blue whale!

Although small, it does have one advantage over predators that larger whales do not. As a defence mechanism, it can release a burst of reddish-brown fluid from its intestines, which allow it cover to dive and escape.

It is not known how many pygmy sperm whales there are, as they are not often seen. Most of what is known about them has been through strandings. Preferring warmer and deeper waters, they have been sighted in different sub-tropical and tropical waters. They are not known to migrate. Unlike the blue whale, they were not victim to commercial hunting, but could still be endangered as they are vulnerable to environmental change and pollution, and their echolocation can be compromised by sea traffic and ships’ sonar.